Microaggression
The term “microaggression” was originally coined by Pierce in the 1970s in terms of racial microaggression Pierce, C. M., Carew, J. V., Pierce-Gonzalez & Wills, D. (1977). An Expert in racism: TV commercials. Education and Urban Society, 10(1), 61- 87.. “The chief vehicle for proracist behaviors are microaggressions. These are subtle, stunning, often automatic, and non-verbal exchanges which are ‘put-downs’ of blacks by offenders” Pierce, C. M., Carew, J. V., Pierce-Gonzalez & Wills, D. (1977). An Expert in racism: TV commercials. Education and Urban Society, 10(1), 65. Davis defined microaggressions as ”stunning, automatic acts of disregard that stem from unconscious attitudes of white superiority and constitute a verification of black inferiorityDavis, P. C. (1989). Law as microaggression. The Yale Law Journal, 98(8). 1559-1577. Furthermore Davis states that microaggression is enabled because “cognitive habit, history, and culture left it unable to hear the range of relevant voices and grapple with what reasonably might be said in the voice of discrimination’s victims”Davis, P. C. (1989). Law as microaggression. The Yale Law Journal, 98(8). 1576). The common currently cited definition of microaggression is put forth by Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. M. B., Nadal, K. L. & Esquilin (2007). Sue et al. report that “Microaggressions are brief and commonplace daily behavioral, or environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults toward people of colorSue, D. W. Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, M. B., Nadal, K. L. & Esquilin, M. (2007). Racial microaggression in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62(4), 27. Sue et al. (2007) went on to expand on the term microaggression by introducing three distinct forms of microaggression in the context of racial microaggression by referring to “microassault,” “microinsult,” and “microinvalidation”Sue et al., 2007, 274: *Microassault is defined as “an explicit racial derogation characterized primarily by verbal or nonverbal attack meant to hurt the intended victim through name-calling, avoidant behavior, or purposeful discriminatory actions”Sue et al., 2007, 274. *Microinsults are defined as “characterized by communications that convey rudeness and insensitivity and demean a person’s racial heritage or identity”Sue et al., 2007, 274. *Microinvalidation is “characterized by communications that exclude, negate, or nullify the psychological thoughts, feelings, or experiential reality of a person of colorSue et al., 2007, 274. Other marginalized groups experience microaggression. Microaggression may be perpetuated on the basis of gender, sexual orientation, and ability statusSue et al., 2007, 274. Supporters of the theory argue that racial microaggressions are reported to be common,Feagin, J. R., & Sikes, M. P. (1994). Living with racism: The Black middle-class experience. Boston: Beacon Press.Sellers, R. M., & Shelton, J. N. (2003). The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1070–1092.Swim, J. K., Cohen, L. L., & Hyers, L. L. (1998). Experiencing everyday prejudice and discrimination. In J. K. Swim & C. Stangor (Eds.), Prejudice: The target’s perspective (pp. 37–60). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Williams, D. R., Neighbors, H. W., & Jackson, J. S. (2003). Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings from community studies. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 200–208. including among people who think of themselves as being fair and nonracist,Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (Eds.). (1986). Prejudice, discrimination, and racism. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Jones, J. M. (1997). Prejudice and racism (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: McGraw-Hill.Whaley, A. (1998). Racism in the provision of mental health services: A social– cognitive analysis. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 68, 47–57. and who have received multicultural training.Gushue, G. V. (2004). Race, color-blind racial attitudes, and judgments about mental health: A shifting standards perspective. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 398–407. Microaggressions can take a number of different forms,Constantine, M.G. (2007). Racial microaggressions against African American clients in cross-racial counseling relationships. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 54, 1-16. for example, questioning the existence of racial-cultural issues, making stereotypic assumptions, and cultural insensitivity.Perceptions of Racial Microaggressions among Black Supervisees in Cross-Racial Dyads Constantine, Madonna G.; Sue, Derald Wing. Journal Counseling Psychology, v54 n2 p142-153 Apr 2007 Some other types of microaggressions that have been identified include Colorblindness (e.g., "I don't think of you as Black. You are just a normal person"), Denial of personal bias (e.g., "I'm not homophobic; I even have gay friends."), and Minimization of racial-cultural issues (e.g., "Just because you feel alone in this group doesn't mean that there's a racial issue involved."). "Colorblindness" in particular has been associated with higher levels of racismNeville, H. A., Lilly, R. L., Duran, G., Lee, R. M., & Browne, L. (2000). Construction and initial validation of the Color-Blind Racial Attitudes Scale (CoBRAS). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47, 59–70. and lower levels of empathy.Burkard, A. W., & Knox, S. (2004). Effect of therapist color-blindness on empathy and attributions in cross-cultural counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 387–397. Recent studies show that a wide variety of people report experiencing racial microaggressions. These include Latino American,Sue, D., Lin, A.I., Torino, G.C. Capodilupo, C.M., & Rivera, D.P. (2009). Racial microaggressions and difficult dialogues on race in the classroom. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15, 183-190. African American,Constantine, M. (2007). Racial microaggressions against African American clients in cross-racial counseling relationships. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 1-16.Constantine, M., & Sue, D. (2007). Perceptions of racial microaggressions among black supervisees in cross-racial dyads. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54,142-153.Constantine, M., Smith, L. Redington, R.M. & Owens, D. (2008). Racial microaggressions against black counseling and counseling psychology faculty: A central challenge in the multicultural counseling movement. Journal of Counseling and Development, 86, 348-355. and Asian AmericanSue, D., Bucceri, J., Lin, A.I., Nadal, K.L., & Torino, G.C. (2009). Racial microaggressions and the Asian American Experience. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 1, 88-101. people. Racial microaggressions are experienced even by professionals.Constantine, M., Smith, L. Redington, R.M. & Owens, D. (2008). Racial microaggressions against black counseling and counseling psychology faculty: A central challenge in the multicultural counseling movement. Journal of Counseling and Development, 86, 348-35 5. Focus group based research with African American students at universities have revealed that racial microaggressions exist in both academic and social spaces in the collegiate environment.Solorzano, D. (1998). "Critical Race Theory, Racial and Gender Microaggressions, and the Experiences of Chicana and Chicano Scholars." International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education 11, 121-136; Critical Race Theory, Racial Microaggressions, and Campus Racial Climate: The Experiences of African American College Students Daniel Solorzano, Miguel Ceja, Tara Yosso The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 69, No. 1/2, Knocking at Freedom's Door: Race, Equity, and Affirmative Action in U.S. Higher Education (Winter - Spring, 2000), pp. 60-73; Yosso, T., Ceja, M., Smith, W. & Solorzano, D. (2009). “Critical Race Theory, Racial Microaggressions, and Campus Racial Climate For Latina/o Undergraduates.” Harvard Educational Review, 79, 659-690. College students report that they experience racial microaggressions in their relationships with their college counselors, in classrooms,Sue, D., Lin, A.I., Torino, G.C. Capodilupo, C.M., & Rivera, D.P. (2008). Racial microaggressions and difficult dialogues on race in the classroom. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15, 183-190. and in other training relationships.Constantine, M., & Sue, D. (2007). Perceptions of racial microaggressions among black supervisees in cross-racial dyads. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54,142-153. People have expressed several ways in which they feel harmed when they receive racial microaggressions. For example, people may feel demeaned by implied messagesSue, D., Capodilupo, C.M., & Holder, A.M.B. (2008). Racial microaggressions in the life experience of black Americans. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 39, 329-336. such as, “You do not belong,” “You are abnormal,” “You are intellectually inferior,” “You cannot be trusted,” and “You are all the same.” Recipients of these messages have also reported feeling other negative consequences, including powerlessness, invisibility, pressure to comply, loss of integrity, and pressure to represent one’s group. Some strategies have been identified that help in the difficult classroom discussions that are sometimes triggered by microaggressions. For example, students report that they do not want to be looked to as experts on race-related topics, and that they feel hindered in discussions in which others are overly worried about being perceived as being racist. Microaggressions may play a role in unfairness in the legal system as they can influence the decisions of juries.Law As Microaggression Peggy C. Davis The Yale Law Journal, Vol. 98, No. 8, Symposium: Popular Legal Culture (Jun., 1989), pp. 1559-1577 Other subtle types of oppression include institutional oppression and subtle decision-making biases. See also * Ableism * Anti-LGBT slogans * Chauvinism * Etiquette * Intercultural communication * LGBT stereotypes * Occupational sexism * Race and health * Racism * Rules of Civility and Decent Behaviour In Company and Conversation * Stereotype threat * Victim blaming References See also * Intercultural communication * Race and health * Stereotype threat Category:Discrimination category:Social behavior